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Magasin a Poudre/Institute d' Honneur Visitors who enter Old Fort Niagara through the South Redoubt are first impressed with the French Castle, standing on the far side of the parade ground. Less noticed perhaps is the tall, almost windowless building to the left; the Powder Magazine. Erected in 1757, at the high water mark of French fortunes during the French and Indian War, the magazine today reminds us of France's far-flung North American empire at its zenith. It also stands as a monument to its designer, Captain Pierre Pouchot who created a structure that survived a desperate siege and was used for ammunition storage into the twentieth century. Powder magazines may not be the most interesting of structures, until something goes wrong. History is full of accounts of gunpowder supplies exploding with disastrous consequences. One of the earliest recorded incidents of accidental explosion occurred in 1280 when Mongols blew up a Chinese arsenal through carelessness. Erasmus described a devastating explosion in Basel, Switzerland in the early 16 th century and a powder supply in Delft, Holland exploded on October 12, 1654 destroying much of the city. In this last incident, about 40 tons of powder, stored in a magazine that formerly served as a Clarissen convent, blew up when the magazine's keeper, Cornelis Soetens, opened the door of the magazine to check a sample of the powder. Over a hundred people were killed and thousands injured. Luckily, many of the city's residents were away from home. The damage was portrayed by the artist Egbert van der Poel in his painting A View of Delft After the Explosion of 1654. The stakes were indeed high; one spark could wreck a fortress or town and kill half of its inhabitants. During late medieval times, gunpowder was often stored in towers located along a castle's outer perimeter. As the capabilities of artillery improved, the folly of this practice became obvious. During the sixteenth century, military engineers began to design specialized buildings to store gunpowder. These designs were gradually improved and somewhat standardized by the 18 th century. The safest place for a powder magazine was underground, in a chamber roofed with heavy beams and covered with a deep layer of earth. Mortar bombs and other incoming fire would spend itself harmlessly in the dirt and the garrison would live to fight another day. Most forts built in North America featured just this kind of magazine. 1 The disadvantage of underground magazines was dampness. Gunpowder that drew damp became little more than a useless sooty black paste. Above-ground storage was certainly a better option for keeping the powder dry, but such magazines were much more exposed to enemy fire. To compensate, they had to be built with thick stone walls, and arched ceilings to render them bombproof. During the seventeenth century, the preeminent military engineer of the age, Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707) standardized magazine design in France. Vauban's designs were single-story stone buildings with thick walls, stone arched ceilings that were designed to withstand artillery fire, steep gabled roofs, and buttresses that strengthened the arch. Inside the building, raised wooden floors and wood-lined walls helped keep out the damp. Often, crushed stone or chips underlay the floor, further promoting a dry atmosphere. Perforated iron plates and masonry dice (baffles), set into the walls, allowed air into the magazine without exposing the building's contents to flying embers or sparks. Vauban's magazines were designed to house 45-60 tons of gunpowder. Examples of Vauban's work can be seen at Gravelines near Dunkirk, at Fort Barraux, near Grenoble, and on the Crozon Peninsula in Brittany. 2 Vauban's designs provided a valuable starting point for Captain Pierre Pouchot as he set out during the winter of 1756-57 to construct a new powder magazine at Fort Niagara. Pouchot had spent the winter of 1755 and the first half of 1756 at Fort Niagara erecting temporary barracks and constructing massive earthworks designed to withstand artillery fire. From this time he undoubtedly realized that the existing magazine at the west end of the French Castle was far too small to house the powder supply an expanded fort would need. After a brief sojourn at the siege of Oswego (see the March 2006 issue of Fortress Niagara), and a road building assignment at La Prairie, Pouchot returned to Fort Niagara in October 1756 to complete the transformation of the post. This time he was placed in command of the Fort, a post that had previously been reserved for officers of the colonial regulars (compagnies franches de la Marine), not regular army officers from France. On his journey to Niagara, he was accompanied by soldiers from three army regiments, his own Bearn Regiment, the Guienne Regiment, and the La Sarre Regiment. Pouchot sited his new powder magazine at the southern end of the enlarged fort, next to a newly built provisions storehouse. To make room for the magazine, he tore down a temporary barracks that had been constructed the year before. Pouchot probably imported the stone for the magazine from Cataraqui (Fort Frontenac) where modern Kingston, Ontario stands today. The stone was transported across Lake Ontario aboard a fleet of sailing vessels that France maintained on Lake Ontario. In addition to the magazine, Pouchot superintended the construction of new log barracks, storehouses, a forge, stable, hospital and church. In January 1757 he dispatched a report to the Marquis de Montcalm reporting progress on these buildings. Bitter cold however, retarded the work. Construction continued through the spring and summer months, and as of May, Montcalm recorded that the magazine at Fort Niagara was not yet finished. During this time, Pouchot had more on his mind than construction. Relations with Native allies from the Great Lakes and Midwest consumed much of his time as hundreds of warriors gathered at Niagara. Some came to form war parties to attack English settlements to the south, while others passed through on their way east to join the French Army in an attack on British Fort William Henry on Lake George. News of French victories the previous year had traveled fast and Ottawas, Ojibwas, Menominees, Potawatamies, Winnebagoes, Fox, Sauk, Miami, and even Iowa warriors now made their way to Fort Carillon (Ticonderoga) where the French Army assembled for its descent on Fort William Henry. Here, nearly 2,000 Native warriors gathered to support the French. Rumors that victors would be “swimming in brandy” and that Montcalm was willing to ransom prisoners motivated Native warriors to travel as far as 1,500 miles to participate in the battle. In all, 33 nations were represented, the largest assemblage of Native warriors ever to take the field to support the French cause. Many of the warriors traveling through Niagara from the west left their women and children at the Fort to be cared for while they took the field. 3 By September, 1757, Pouchot could report that Fort Niagara and its buildings were finished and its covered ways stockaded. His task completed, Pouchot was relieved of his command in October 1757. In his memoirs he wrote “Since this fort was a very considerable one, because of its position and the large number of Indians who had dealings there and came from all parts to trade and form war parties, it was soon coveted by all of the officers of the colony.” 4 Pouchot was relieved by Captain Jean Francois de Vassan of the colonial regular troops. The magazine Pouchot left behind was one of the largest in the colony, designed to hold up to 50 tons of gunpowder. The building's four-foot thick stone walls, earth covered arched ceiling, and steep gabled roof is strikingly similar to Vauban's standard designs that graced fortresses throughout France. Conspicuously missing from Pouchot's magazine, however, were the massive stone buttresses that Vauban used to strengthen the arched ceilings of his magazines. Whether these were omitted as a frontier expedient or through inexperience is not known. Regardless, Pouchot left the Fort with a substantial above-ground powder magazine that was capable of withstanding the artillery that British forces were likely to drag and float west from the Mohawk Valley. Inside the building, wooden racks extended from floor to ceiling, holding hundreds of powder casks, each of about 50 pounds capacity. In all, about fifty tons of gunpowder could be safely stored until needed. Ironically, much of the powder stored in the magazine during the final years of French occupation may have been British in origin, captured from General Edward Braddock or at the fall of Forts Oswego and William Henry. The question arises, why such a large magazine? The answer lies in the Fort's own need for a large powder supply and its role as a supply depot for other French posts in the upper Great Lakes and the Ohio Valley. By 1757 Fort Niagara was well armed with 30 pieces of artillery including twelve 12-pounders according to Captain Francois Marc-Antoine Le Mercier, commandant of artillery in New France. 5 In the event of a protracted siege, a large powder supply would be necessary, as subsequent events were to demonstrate. Fort Niagara also forwarded powder supplies to posts in the upper Great Lakes and in the Ohio Valley. A good supply of gunpowder was especially important at Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) not only to defend the Fort itself, but also to supply the numerous native warriors that frequented the post. In addition to some 250 soldiers, Fort Duquesne at times hosted up to 500 Native allies who carried out raids on the frontiers of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. During the course of the war, these raiding parties killed approximately 1,500 settlers, carried off 1,000 more as prisoners and drove even more from their homes. 6 To keep these warriors in the field, it was necessary to provide supplies, including gunpowder, most of which had to come through Fort Niagara. As Governor Vaudreuil explained in 1758: ...tis impossible to avoid the consumption of powder in war...there is no country where so much of it is consumed, both for hunting and distribution among the Indians; burning of powder is equally a passion among the Canadians, but I think we gain thereby in the day of battle, by the correctness of their aim in firing. 7 Fort Niagara's powder magazine's greatest test came two years after its construction when it endured the siege of 1759. Not only did the structure survive a week long bombardment by British artillery, it saw service disbursing an estimated 24 tons of powder in defense of the Fort. 8 A British inventory taken after the Fort's capture revealed that 15,000 pounds of bulk powder remained. Prior to surrendering the Fort, French officers were said to have locked personal valuables in the magazine to prevent their theft. 9 As the years passed a few changes were made to the building. Prior to the American Revolution, the British added a small entryway that survives today and added buttresses to the building exterior. These were removed in the mid-19 th century when windows and ventilation slits were also added. The building remained sound for ammunition storage into the twentieth century; as late as World War One, the United States Army stored ammunition in Pouchot's magazine. Perhaps the most infamous story surrounding the magazine is the incarceration there of William Morgan, an early nineteenth-century anti-Masonic activist. Morgan was imprisoned in the magazine just before his mysterious disappearance in 1826. Following its restoration between 1932 and 1934, the powder magazine served as an exhibit building, containing orientation exhibits. Restoration of the building was made possible through the generosity of Wallace I. Keep and the building was dedicated as L' Institut d' Honneur on October 5, 1935. Ironically, the plaque dedicating the building lists its builder as Captaine Francois Pouchot. With the opening of the Visitor Center in 2006, the building interior was cleared of exhibits and will be restored in 2007 to its 18 th century appearance through a special projects grant from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. Used as ammunition storage, a vault for valuables, a prison, and an exhibit gallery, the powder magazine's changing usefulness has allowed it to survive where many others have crumbled. Notes: 1 Travelers wishing to visit an underground magazine from this period can tour one at Fort Ligonier in Ligonier Pennsylvania. Photographs and drawings of this structure can be found in Charles Morse Stotz, Outposts of the War for Empire, (Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania, 2005) pp 172-175. 2 See Christopher Duffy, Fire and Stone: The Science of Fortress Warfare, 1660-1860 (Greenhill Books, London 1996) pp. 91-92. See also Paddy Griffith, The Vauban Fortifications of France (Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2006). 3 See Ian Steele, Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the “Massacre” (Oxford University Press, 1990). 4 Pierre Pouchot Memoirs on the Late War In North America Between France and England, Brian Dunnigan, ed.(Old Fort Niagara Association Youngstown, NY 2004) p. 133 5 E. B. O'Callaghan ed. Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New York : (15 vols.: Albany, 1856-1877), X, p. 656 6 See Matthew C. Ward, Breaking the Backcountry: The Seven Years War in Virginia and Pennsylvania. 1754-1765. (University of Pittsburgh Press 2003). 7 M. de Vaudreuil to M. de Massiac, Nov. 1, 1758. DRCHSNY v. X p. 863 . 8 Pouchot, Memoirs p. 237 9 Brian Leigh Dunnigan Siege-1759 The Campaign Against Niagara, (Old Fort Niagara Association, Youngstown, NY 1996) p. 106

Major George Armistead's name is indelibly linked with America's most famous flag; the Star Spangled Banner. What is more obscure is his connection with another preserved flag from the War of 1812 that currently hangs at Old Fort Niagara. Armistead was born in Caroline County, Virginia in 1780. He came from a military family and entered the United States Army in 1799 as an ensign. From 1801 to 1806 Armistead served as First Lieutenant and Assistant Military Agent at Fort Niagara. He arrived at the Fort September 1, 1801, assigned to Captain James Reid's Company, Second Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers. Throughout his career, Armistead liked big flags. Shortly after he arrived at Fort Niagara he discovered that the post had no national colors. The US had taken over Fort Niagara from the British in 1796. On August 11 of that year, American soldiers raised the new 15-star, 15-stripe flag on the garrison flagstaff located in the north bastion. Recently-landed six pounders roared out a 15-gun salute. Apparently these colors were not longer present in 1802, prompting Armistead to request the purchase of a 48-foot by 38 foot banner. This flag was of the pattern established by Congress in flag legislation of 1795 including one star and one stripe for each state in the Union. Armistead did not care for Fort Niagara's harsh winters and took extended furloughs during the winter months to visit relatives in Dumfries, VA. In 1806 Armistead was assigned to the Arkansas Territory and then in 1809 was promoted to Captain and transferred to Fort McHenry on the Patapsco River in Baltimore. He returned to Fort Niagara in the Spring of 1813 as a Major in the 3rd Regiment of Artillery. During his short stay at Fort Niagara, he almost certainly saw another garrison color flying over the Fort. This one, measured at least 22 by 28 feet, a little smaller than the 48' by 38' foot flag requested by Armistead in 1802. At Fort Niagara, on May 27, 1813, Armistead distinguished himself at the bombardment and capture of Fort George, a British-held post across the river in Canada.. General Henry Dearborn reported to the Secretary of War “I am greatly indebted to Colonel Porter, Major Armistead and Captain Totten for their judicious arrangements and skillful execution in demolishing the enemies fort and batteries, and to the officers of the artillery.” For his distinguished service, Armistead was given the honor of carrying British battle flags captured in the fall of Fort George to Washington for presentation to President Madison. On June 27, 1813, while in Washington, Armistead received orders to take command of Fort McHenry in Baltimore Harbor. Shortly after his arrival he wrote, “We, sir, are ready at Fort McHenry to defend Baltimore against invading by the enemy. That is to say, we are ready except we have no suitable ensign to display over the Fort, and it is my desire to have a flag so large that the British will have no difficulty in seeing it from a distance.” As a result, what we call today the Star Spangled Banner was made under government contract in the summer of 1813 by professional flag maker Mary Pickergill and members of her family. The flag measured 30 feet by 42 feet. During the Battle of Baltimore September 12-14, 1814, British ships bombarded Fort McHenry for 25 hours. When Armistead's flag of defiance appeared at dawn, showing that the Americans still possessed the fortress that blocked British ships from Baltimore Harbor, Francis Scott Key was prompted to write “The Star Spangled Banner” a poem that was eventually set to music and became our national anthem. Armistead was soon promoted by President Madison to the rank of Lt. Colonel and given possession of the garrison flag. The Banner remained in the family's possession until turned over to the Smithsonian Institution in 1907. He remained in command of Fort McHenry until his death in 1818. Ironically that same year, new flag legislation made 15-star, 15 stripe flags obsolete. What of the Fort Niagara flag, the banner that Armistead no doubt saw just before leaving for Washington and his new assignment as commandant of Fort McHenry? On the night of December 18-19 1813, a 562-man British force crossed the Niagara River and captured Fort Niagara and the garrison flag. The captured flag was sent to London where it was laid at the feet of His Royal Highness, the Prince Regent, later King George IV. Soon after it was sent to the home of Sir Gordon Drummond, commander of British forces in upper Canada. Here it remained and was damaged by fire in 1969. In the early 1990s the Old Fort Niagara Association purchased the flag and returned it to western New York. For the first time in 2006, it was placed on permanent public display in a new Visitor Center. The Fort Niagara flag is an older sister the more famous Star Spangled Banner. It is one of only about 20 known surviving examples of the Stars and Stripes dating before 1815 and is one of the best documented of these early flags. The Fort Niagara War of 1812 flag and its more famous sister, the Star Spangled Banner, are linked through the personage of Major George Armistead, a brave officer who stood in defense of his country on more than one occasion.

Beginning in the fall of 1778, there are several references to the construction of housing for Loyalist and Native refugees. The Fort’s commandant, Col. Mason Bolton, insisted that billeting inside the Fort be reserved for regular troops. As Col. Butler’s Corps of Rangers returned to Niagara after the 1778 campaign, the need to construct housing for them became acute. Initially, the rangers were issued tents, but this proved inadequate for sheltering the men against Niagara’s winter weather. In July, Governor General Frederick Haldimand, who was stationed in Quebec, wrote to Bolton: I send him (Captain Robert Matthews) up to you…and as your garrison will be reinforced in autumn, he may be employed in erecting such additional log houses as may be necessary for their (the rangers’) lodging. Construction of the Ranger barracks was originally begun on the Bottoms below the Fort. This site proved unsatisfactory as represented in this letter from Walter Butler: On Captain Butler’s arrival from Canada the latter of August 78 (Major Butler having arrived but a few days before from the Indian Country in a very ill state of health) he found a Barrack in building and the frame nearly ready to be put up, which Col. Bolton told him was to be a Barrack for the Rangers: on finding the place very ill situated for quarters whether for officers or men and out of the Fort, in the Bottom, where in Fall and Spring there is half a leg deep of water and mud, and not more ground than to erect one Barrack which was not sufficient Quarters for the officers: and even were there ground sufficient such a situation no officer could be answerable for his Men: In justice to the service from the place being open to Indians day and night, and they constantly drinking, and often very troublesome, whence unhappy consequences might arrive, from such a number of men mixt with them: For those reasons Captain Butler waited on Major Butler, and tho he was very sick, represented those matters to him. Finally the decision was made to move the rangers to the west side of the Niagara River. In November, Bolton wrote to Haldimand, Major Butler is building Barracks for the Rangers on the opposite side of the river and Captain Matthews is employed in cutting a strong log house (which will contain 40 or 50 men) at the Upper Landing and we are also at work with the additional Log Houses for this Garrison agreeable to Your Excellency’s orders. In addition to these log barracks, Col. Bolton refers specifically to log houses for Native families at the Bottoms. On November 11, 1778, Bolton wrote: On Niagara side not having boards for officer floors and if Capt. Butler were not greatly mistaken, the artificers employed in repairing said barracks and putting in order the log houses in the bottom for several Indian families were paid in the Ranger Barracks acct. The tents of the Rangers going into barracks were given to a number of the Indians who came in to Receive his Majesty’s Bounty to cover them from the weather and have never been returned.

The Events of July 1759

Celebrating King George III's Birthday in 1772

An account of the Battle of La Belle Famille, published in the Pennsylvania Gazette, August 1759 Saturday Afternoon an Express arrived in Town from Albany, which Place he left about Six o’Clock on Thursday Morning, with the following agreeable News, which was brought to Albany a few Hours before, from Sir William Johnson, at Niagara, viz. That on the 24th of July, as Sir William Johnson lay before the Fort of Niagara, with the Forces under his Command, besieging it, he received Intelligence by a Party of his Indians that were sent out on a Scout, that there was a large Body of French and Indians coming from Venango, as a Reinforcement to the Garrison of Niagara. General Johnson thereupon ordered 60 chosen Men from the 44th and 46th Regiments, 100 New York Provincials, and 600 Mohawks, Senecas &c. to march immediately, and Way-lay them, which they accordingly did, and threw up a Breast-work at a Place where they knew the French must pass by on their Way to the Fort, and sent a Battoe with 10 or 12 Men down the River a little Way, to fire when the Enemy were near at Hand, which would give them Warning to prepare themselves for the Reception, and in short Time after their Breast-work was finished, they heard the Alarm given by the Battoe that was sent forward, on which they all prepared themselves to receive the Enemy, each Man having two Balls and three Buck-Shot in his Gun, and were squatted. However, the Enemy perceived them in their Intrenchment, and fired six Times on them before our People returned their Fire; but as soon as the Enemy came close, all the English rose up and discharged their Pieces, which made the utmost Slaughter imaginable among them, and repeated their Fire three Times, when the Enemy’s Indians that were left alive, left them; immediately upon which our People jumped over their Breast-work, and flew on the Enemy Sword in Hand, still continuing to make great Slaughter among them, & took 120 Prisoners, among which were 7 Officers some of which are of Distinction, with their chief commander. The Havok we made at the End was great, 500 of the Enemy at least being left on the field of Battle. Those that could made their Escape, and went down the River. Upon the Return of our Troops to General Johnson with the Prisoners, he immediately sent a Flag of Truce in to the Commander of the Fort, and demanded a surrender, telling him of the Defeat of the Reinforcement he expected; but the French Commandant would not give Credit to what General Johnson said, till he had sent a Flag of Truce with a Drum, in to our Camp, and found it but too true; and immediately on the Officer’s Return to the Fort, the French Commander offered to capitulate, provided General Johnson would permit the Garrison to march out with all the Honours of War, which was agreed to; but that they must immediately, upon their coming out, lay down their Arms, and surrender themselves, which they accordingly did; and General Johnson took Possession of the Fort directly after. The Garrison consisted of 607 Men, among which were 16 Officers, 7 of which were Captains, besides the Chief Commander, and we hear they were shortly, after their Surrender, embarked on board Battoes, and sent up to Oswego, and from thence were to be sent down to New-York, and may be expected here every Day. The number of our killed and wounded in the Defeat of the Reinforcement from Venango, we cannot as yet justly ascertain, but there were five of the New-Yorkers among the Slain in that Affair. It is said we had not lost 40 Men in the Whole, since the Landing of the Troops at Niagara. The Indians were allowed all the Plunder in the Fort, and found a vast Quantity of it, some say to the Value of 300£ a Man. The Fort, it is said, is large enough to contain 1000 fighting Men, without Inconvenience; all the Buildings in and about it are standing, and in good Order; and it is thought, had our Forces stormed the Place (which was intended) they would have met with a warm Reception; and beating the Venango Party, will undoubtedly crown with laurels the ever deserving Johnson. Niagara, July 25, 1759 Yesterday Morning a Party of French and Indians consisting of 1500, of which 400 were Indians, about Eight o’Clock came upon our right, where a Breast-work was thrown up, as we had Intelligence of their coming and as ten of our People were crossing the Lake above they began to fire on them, which gave our People time to get all their Pickets, the 46th Regiment, Part of the 44th, 100 New-Yorkers, and 600 Indians, ready to oppose them. We waited, and received their Fire five or six Times, before our People returned it, which they did at about 30 Yards Distance, then jumped over their Breast-Work, and closed in with them, upon which they immediately gave Way and broke, their Indians left them and for a While we made a vast Slaughter. The Whole being defeated, the Prisoners were brought in, among which were about 16 or 17 Officers, several of Distinction, and about 60 or 70 Men; the whole Field was covered with their Dead. After the General took the Names of all the Officers taken, he sent Major Harvey, by the Desire of Mons. Aubrey, the Commanding Officer of the whole Party, to the Commanding Officer of the Fort, who disputed his having them, and kept Major Harvey in the Fort, and sent an Officer to the General; when they found it was true, and all their Succours cut off, they began to treat on Conditions of Surrender, which continued till near 8 o’Clock in the Evening before they were concluded; however our Grenadiers, with the Train, marched in this Morning, and the whole Garrison was surrendered to Sir WILLIAM JOHNSON, who succeeded to the Command after the Death of General PRIDEAUX. The Ordnance Store found in the fort at Niagara when General Johnson took Possession of it, were two 14 Pounders; nineteen 12 Pounders; one 11 Pounder; seven 8 Pounders; seven 6 Pounders; two 4 Pounders; five 2 Pounders; all Iron; 1500 Round 12 Pound Shot; 40,000 Pound of Musket Ball; 200 Weight of Match; 500 Hand Grenades; 2 Cohorns, and 2 Mortars, mounted; 300 Hand Bills; 500 Hand Hatchets; 100 Axes; 300 Shovels; 400 Pick Axes; 250 Mattocks [Hoes]; 54 Spades; 12 Whipsaws; and a considerable Number of Small Arms, Swords, Tomahawks, Scalping Knives, Cartouche-boxes, &c.

The History of Old Fort Niagara spans more than 300 years. From the early 18 th century through the War of 1812, a fort at the mouth of the Niagara River was vital, because it controlled access to the Great Lakes and the westward route to the heartland of North America. The Great Lakes and their connecting straits form a continuous body of water from the Atlantic Ocean to the center of the North American continent. To Native Americans and early Europeans, these waters provided natural highways through a rugged and heavily forested land. Perhaps the most significant barrier on this great water highway was Niagara Falls, a 182-foot cataract that required travelers to carry their boats and goods around the great falls. Whoever controlled this land detour, or portage, could exclude their rivals and enemies from the American interior. Prior to the coming of Europeans, Native Americans intermittently used the future site of Fort Niagara as a hunting and fishing camp. During the 17 th century, the French were the first Europeans to explore the Niagara Region. Twice they erected forts at the river’s mouth, the first in 1679 and the second in 1687. Neither lasted more than a year. In 1726 French soldiers and workmen arrived at the mouth of the Niagara and began construction of Le Maison Machicoulis , a large stone building known today as the French Castle. This building, surrounded by a wooden stockade, was designed to house about 40 soldiers. The new Fort protected French interests in the region and provided a venue where Frenchmen and Native Americans could meet to negotiate and trade. Shortly after the outbreak of the French and Indian War, the British targeted Fort Niagara for capture. The French responded by expanding the Fort to house a larger garrison and withstand artillery fire. It was not until 1759 that a British/New York Provincial army and almost 1,000 Haudenosaunee allies laid siege to the Fort. After nineteen days, the Fort’s walls had been breached by British artillery and a French relief force defeated just one mile from the Fort. The French surrendered the post and Fort Niagara became British. By 1763 a new threat confronted Fort Niagara’s garrison. Native Americans, upset by British expansion and trade policies captured eight Great Lakes forts and laid siege to Detroit during the so-called Pontiac’s War. Although Fort Niagara was not attacked, it was a critical link in the supply line to Detroit. The following year Fort Niagara witnessed a great council between the British and several Native nations. The Fort also served as an assembly point for an expedition that relieved Detroit and returned many of the Great Lakes outposts to British control. With the return of peace, Fort Niagara’s garrison was reduced to around 150 men whose duties included guarding the Niagara portage, moving supplies and policing Indian traders. To guard against a Native attack on the reduced garrison, the British built two stone redoubts in 1770 and 1771. In spite of these improvements, the Fort was in decrepit shape at the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1775. Over the next eight years, the British expended a great deal of effort and expense to improve the Fort and protect their link to the west. In addition to serving as Britain’s Great Lakes headquarters, the Fort became a haven for frontier Loyalists and Native American allies. From Fort Niagara, loyalist/Native raiding parties devastated the frontiers of New York and Pennsylvania, diverting much-needed manpower and supplies from George Washington’s forces fighting along the seaboard. When American forces counterattacked in 1779, Fort Niagara became a haven for thousands of Native American refugees. The British were ill prepared for this influx and hundreds of Native people starved or perished from exposure during the brutal winter of 1779-80. At the conclusion of the Revolution Fort Niagara was supposed to be turned over to the new United States. Unresolved treaty disputes delayed the transfer however, and it was not until 1796 that American troops secured control of Fort Niagara. The British moved across the river and erected Fort George on the Canadian shore. Unfortunately Fort Niagara’s most formidable defenses faced east, away from the new threat. In addition, small garrisons and paltry resources resulted in rapid deterioration of the Fort’s defenses. With the outbreak of the War of 1812 Fort Niagara found itself on the front lines of the conflict. In October and November 1812 Fort Niagara traded artillery fire with Fort George in furious but indecisive bombardments. Fire was again exchanged in May 1813, when U.S. troops successfully captured Fort George. By the end of the year however, American troops abandoned the Canadian shore and burned the town of Newark. The British reoccupied the ruins of Fort George and on the night of December 18-19, 1813 secretly crossed the river and captured Fort Niagara. The Fort remained in British hands until the end of the war. In the 1820s the completion of the Erie and Welland Canals rendered the Niagara portage obsolete and Fort Niagara’s strategic value quickly declined. The garrison was withdrawn and only a caretaker watched over the Fort’s venerable buildings and walls. The Fort was regarrisoned from 1828 to 1832 but then once again deactivated until a new border crisis in 1837 prompted Congress to authorize improvements to the Fort. By the time these improvements were completed in 1843, the crisis had passed and Fort Niagara was once again only sporadically garrisoned. During the Civil War, the Fort once again saw improvements as the Union worried about a British alliance with the Confederacy. Construction of new concrete and brick revetments began in 1863 but was not completed until after the war ended. The Fort’s artillery casemates were never armed and the new defenses were obsolete by the time of their completion. As an anticlimax, border tensions once again escalated in 1866 as rebels known as Fenians sought Irish liberation through the conquest of Canada. The post-Civil War years witnessed a significant change in Fort Niagara. A garrison that arrived in 1865 found the Fort’s living quarters antiquated and virtually uninhabitable. Construction soon began on modern buildings situated outside the old fortifications. This was the beginning of “New” Fort Niagara, the area occupied by modern Fort Niagara State Park. Continuous changes to New Fort Niagara allowed the post to survive well into the twentieth century. A 1,000 yard rifle range was constructed in 1885 and the Fort became increasingly useful for training purposes. Troops were prepared for the Spanish-American War of 1898 and the Philippine Insurrection of 1899-1901. The post also served as an officers training camp during World War One. Despite all of the activity in the new Fort, Old Fort Niagara was in a sadly neglected state by the early 1920s. Lake Ontario had undermined the seawall protecting its northern flank and the French Castle was in danger of collapse. The surviving 18 th century buildings were badly deteriorated. Fortunately, the old fortifications and structures had long been recognized for their historical value. A group of local citizens began to advocate repair and preservation. They formally organized the Old Fort Niagara Association in 1927 with the goal of saving the Castle. Cooperation between the Army and the Association permitted restoration of the other buildings by 1934. New Fort Niagara continued as an active post. During World War Two, the Fort was used as an induction center and as a prisoner of war camp. Fort Niagara was declared surplus in 1945 and many of the buildings were converted to temporary housing for returning veterans. Plans to convert the New Fort into a state park were developed in the late 1940s but the Korean War forced reoccupation of the Fort in 1950. Anti-aircraft troops were stationed there from 1952 until the base was decommissioned in 1963. Long-delayed plans to convert the area to a park were soon implemented and most of the garrison buildings were demolished in 1965-66 to clear ground for recreational purposes. Only a few structures remain. With the exception of the United States Coast Guard station adjacent to the Fort, the military history of this important site had come to an end.  Today, Old Fort Niagara welcomes thousands of visitors each year who learn about life on the Niagara Frontier during the early years of our nation.